Sing with support — but how? A study of how support is described in five books on singing

Before you read on…

Hi, I’m Noomi, and I am the nerdy musicologist/vocal coach who wrote this thesis. It was originally written in Swedish and the original can be found here.

No patience to read the full thing? I get it. These are the key takeaways:

• People mean different things when they talk about breath support

• Studies show that not even classical singing teachers can tell if people are “singing with support”

• Stop tensing your abs like crazy when you sing! It does more harm than good

• Find a singing teacher that demonstrates rather than gives you verbal instructions that make little sense

• If someone tells you to “sing from the diaphragm” … Run in the opposite direction

The text below has been AI translated.

Abstract
Many singers agree that singing with support is important. But what is this support, really? This qualitative study of five books on singing from the USA and the UK shows that there is no consensus on what the concept of support means or how to sing with it. Several authors even prefer not to use the term because it is often misunderstood. The paper also highlights research showing that it is often impossible to hear any difference in whether singers use what they call support. Using the theory of tacit knowledge, the study illuminates the difficulties of conveying singing techniques to others through verbal or written instructions. Based on the five books and research on support, the paper discusses alternative concepts and methods that singers can use to convey and acquire tacit singing knowledge.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction
1.1 Aim and research questions
2 Definitions and previous research
2.1 Definitions of the concept of support
2.2 Studies on support
2.3 The role of the vocal folds
2.4 The role of inhalation
3 How the voice works
4 Theory and method
5 Material
Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults – Jenevora Williams (2024)
Find Your Voice – The No.1 Singing Tutor – Jo Thompson (2014)
The Solo Singer in the Choral Setting: A Handbook for Achieving Vocal Health –
Margaret Olson (2010)
On the Art of Singing – Richard Miller (1996)
The Functional Unity of the Singing Voice – Barbara Doscher (1994)
6 Review of how the concept of support is used in five books on singing
6.1 Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults
6.1.1 The concept of support according to Williams
6.1.2 Williams on breathing and airflow control
6.1.3 Williams’ view of the concept of support
6.2 Find Your Voice – The No. 1 Singing Tutor
6.2.1 The concept of support according to Thompson
6.2.2 Thompson on breathing and airflow control
6.2.3 Thompson’s view of the concept of support
6.3 The Solo Singer in the Choral Setting – A Handbook for Achieving Vocal
Health
6.3.1 The concept of support according to Olson
6.3.2 Olson on breathing and airflow control
6.3.3 Olson’s view of the concept of support
6.4 On the Art of Singing
6.4.1 The concept of support according to Miller
6.4.2 Miller on breathing and airflow control
6.4.3 Miller’s view of the concept of support
6.5 The Functional Unity of the Singing Voice
6.5.1 The concept of support according to Doscher
6.5.2 Doscher on breathing and airflow control
6.5.3 Doscher’s view of the concept of support
7 Analysis and comparison of the material
7.1.1 Descriptions of support
7.1.2 Breathing and airflow control
7.1.3 The authors’ views of the concept of support
8 Final discussion
8.1 Support or appoggio
8.2 Resistance and glottal configuration
8.3 Putting tacit vocal knowledge into words
8.4 Vocal technique without the word support
8.5 Possibilities for further research
References and sources
Literature
Websites
Sources
9 Appendix 1: Glossary

1 Introduction

Over the years, in various singing contexts, I have encountered many theories and descriptions regarding how one should breathe and control airflow while singing. These instructions have often included the concept of support. Different choir conductors and singing teachers I have encountered have explained it in different ways, and at times these instructions and explanations have even been direct opposites of one another. When I later learned more about vocal anatomy, I realized that much of what I had been taught was either directly incorrect or, at the very least, not scientifically proven. I came to understand that my own technical singing problems with sustaining long phrases were in fact due to my vocal folds*¹ leaking air — a problem that resolved itself once I strengthened my chest voice and stopped focusing so much on “using support” in the way I had previously been taught.

When I later began training as a singing teacher at the Modern Vocal Training Institute², I noticed that many vocal technical problems stem from factors entirely unrelated to breathing. I was able to observe many singing lessons taught by skilled teachers who, without even mentioning breathing or support, helped their students achieve balance and control in the voice. I have also had several students myself who had previously taken singing lessons and whose ideas about how one “should” use support actually made singing more difficult for them. One student experienced numbness in her hands while singing, as if she were hyperventilating. Another was completely out of breath after singing an entire song because she was exerting herself so intensely. It often takes a long time to unlearn such behaviors, and it is frustrating for students who have genuinely tried to do the “right” thing.

Even though singers do not necessarily need to have detailed knowledge of their instrument, I believe it is important that the information circulating — whether from singing teachers instructing students, choir conductors offering vocal advice, or singers exchanging tips among themselves — is as close to factual as possible. It is also important that singers understand what is actually being asked of them. However, it is very easy for singers simply to pass on the instructions they once received from their own teachers without questioning whether what they learned is correct.

1
The symbol * indicates that a term used in this thesis is included in the glossary in Appendix 1, where a brief explanation is provided.

2
A three-year programme that does not focus on any specific method or genre. Anatomy, voice science, and the creation of exercises designed to address various vocal technical challenges constitute a substantial part of the programme.

1.1 Aim and research questions

The aim of this study is to compare how support is described in singing literature from the United Kingdom and the United States written over a thirty-year period (1994–2024). Why is this worth investigating? Regardless of which terms are used, it is reasonable to assume that most singing teachers and singers alike want to understand, in as simple a way as possible, how to sing both freely and with control. If it is unclear how this is achieved, however, it may have undesirable consequences. At best, unclear information may have no direct consequences, but it could also lead singers to overlook other important aspects of vocal technique. For example, it can be frustrating for singers who believe that support is the problem when their difficulties are actually caused by other factors.

The questions posed to the material are therefore:

• Do the authors use the word support, and if so, how do they define it?

• What do they write about breathing and airflow control, and how do they formulate their descriptions?

• What is the authors’ view of the concept of support? Is it considered tacit knowledge, or something that can be learned through verbal instruction?

2 Definitions and previous research

In this section, I will both present a number of definitions of the word support (breath support in English) and review research that is relevant to the topic.

2.1 Definitions of the concept of support

“Use support” is an instruction many singers have received at some point. But what is this support, really? In the five books examined in this study, several definitions are indeed presented, but I believe it is important both to look at the origin of the concept and to examine what researchers in the field of vocal science consider it to mean.

The word support is a translation of the Italian term appoggio. An early proponent of appoggio was the Italian singing teacher Francesco Lamperti (1811–1892). According to Lamperti, support was so essential to bel canto technique* that he referred to it as the most important secret of good singing. His definition of support involved using the chest musculature and especially the diaphragm* to slow down the airflow in the lungs. Learning to sing with support was presented as the solution to intonation problems, and he also argued that it was impossible to sing with expression without support — neither love nor hatred could be conveyed. Lamperti even wrote that singing without support, as he defined it, might produce sound, but could hardly be called singing. (Lamperti 1890, p. 14)

However, even within classical Italian vocal pedagogy there are differing interpretations. In Italian, one can speak of appoggiarsi in testa (head support) and appoggiarsi in petto (chest support). In National Schools of Singing (1997, p. 41), Richard Miller describes appoggio in the Italian singing tradition as an overarching term for breath control in which muscles of the upper body and the throat are combined and balanced in such a way that none of them dominate or become excessively activated.

That support is not a concept with a single definition becomes clear when examining research on the phenomenon. My original idea was to identify different definitions as they appear in research and compare the literature based on them. In doing so, I encountered the following statement:

Despite centuries-worth of pedagogical inquiry and more recent scientific investigation, the concept of “support” for the singing and speaking voice within studio and clinical contexts remains unclear. (Baker, Miles, Allen & Herbst 2025, p. 1)

According to the authors, what the concept of support actually entails remains unclear.

Breath support is perhaps more difficult to define than any concept in choral pedagogy. William Vennard defined breath support as good control of subglottal pressure. (Cottrell 2010, p. 53)

Here, support is defined as control of subglottal pressure*. At the same time, it is emphasized that the concept is difficult to define. Simply stopping at this definition does not help singers working on their technique, since it provides no concrete guidance on how to actually control pressure.

Another nonphysiological directive often used in pedagogy is to ‘support’ the voice with the breath, considered essential for the singing voice despite the elusiveness of an agreed definition for the term “support”. (Collyer, Kenny & Archer 2011, p. 16)

In this quote, a critical stance toward the term support can be discerned. It is described as non-physiological. According to Nationalencyklopedin, physiology is “the study of how living organisms, their organs and tissues function” (Nationalencyklopedin, Physiology, n.d.). Describing support as non-physiological therefore suggests that it is not an anatomically accurate approach. At the same time, there is a nuance here compared to the previous quote: support is described as “supporting the voice with the breath,” which does not necessarily mean the same thing as controlling subglottal pressure, but rather suggests a more philosophical view of the relationship between breath and tone.

The following quote confirms that support is a difficult concept to define, but also presents two commonly accepted definitions:

The concept of voice support is confusing to students of singing and difficult for voice teachers to explain. Teachers and singers disagree about the definition of the supported voice and how it is produced. References from literature on singing describe support as breath management, “having adequate breath pressure,” or “sustaining the vocalized sound with the breath pressure”. (Griffin, Woo, Colton, Casper & Brewer 1995, p. 45)

In these definitions as well, subglottal pressure is central, but no concrete details are provided on how it should be controlled. This may simply be because singers and singing teachers who use the term support are unable to fully describe what is happening inside the body. This is so-called somatic tacit knowledge, but in many cases also reflects a lack of knowledge about vocal anatomy. Many definitions of the term originate from a time long before science could clarify what actually happens when we sing. The quotes above highlight the problem with the use of the word support: it is difficult to know what is meant by it, since it can be used in many different ways and is often applied arbitrarily without a scientific basis.

2.2 Studies on support

Although science has progressed since Lamperti wrote his book in the nineteenth century, differing views on what support is still exist, and some research has been conducted to determine the difference between singing with and without support. Despite how frequently the term is used in vocal contexts, I have only been able to find a small number of studies that specifically examine support.

A review of singing literature from the 1980s and 1990s showed that it was during this period that anatomical knowledge about how the singing voice works began to become more widely available due to scientific advances. A new approach to learning singing emerged, in which vocal exercises increasingly became tailored to solving specific problems and improving the voice in targeted ways. Pedagogy moved away from traditional, metaphorical descriptions of how singing should feel toward attempts to convey scientific facts. (Velarde 2013, pp. 5–6)

A small study of eight classical singers showed that although there were certain desirable differences in airflow and resonance when the singers sang using what they themselves referred to as support, there was no direct difference in breathing. Instead, the results were attributed to adjustments in the larynx* and glottal configuration*. (Griffin, Woo, Colton, Casper & Brewer 1995, pp. 45–54)

Another study involving five classically trained female singers asked the singers to perform Giulio Caccini’s Ave Maria three times: once using their habitual support, once with the abdomen drawn inward, and once with the abdomen held outward. Listeners consisting of fourteen trained musicians — eleven of whom were classical singing teachers — evaluated the singing quality and perceived use of support in each recording. These evaluation criteria were intentionally general, without clarification of how they should be interpreted or assessed. (Collyer, Kenny & Archer 2011, p. 18)

The listeners’ assessments of two of the singers were unaffected by the breathing strategy used. For the remaining three singers, ratings were lower when the breathing behavior differed from their habitual pattern. The results indicate that whether differences between breathing behaviors were perceptible depended on the individual singer and the degree to which they deviated from their usual approach. No evidence was found to support the idea that singing quality audibly suffers when the abdomen is held outward. The conclusion was that singers have individual habits and sound best when singing in their habitual manner. (Collyer, Kenny & Archer 2011, p. 21)

These results led the authors to question pedagogical approaches to breathing behaviors and the teaching of support, since it could not be demonstrated that one method sounded better than another. They argue that singers’ highly variable breathing behaviors are well documented in other studies, yet this knowledge is not currently applied in vocal pedagogy. (Collyer, Kenny & Archer 2011, p. 22)

In another study, seven trained singers were recorded and sixty-three listeners were asked to analyze the recordings. All singers believed they were familiar with their own voices and could determine whether they were singing with or without support. When listening to their own recordings, however, three of them were unable to determine whether they were using support based on what they heard. Neither could the sixty-three listeners agree on which recordings were sung with or without support. When asked to estimate how much support was being used, some listeners believed the singer was using 100% support, while others believed no support was used at all. One singing teacher stated that they did not believe a single recording was sung with support. The researchers concluded that it was impossible to identify audible differences between singing with support and singing of good quality. (Sonninen, Laukkanen, Karma & Hurme 2005, pp. 223–237)

It is not specified what “good quality” entails, but it could include aspects such as intonation, sustained tone, or dynamic control. Nor is it clarified what “without support” means.

What might explain the lack of perceptible difference? There is often a relationship between subglottal pressure and glottal configuration, particularly in untrained singers, but studies also show that experienced singers can adjust these two parameters independently. (Herbst, Hess, Müller, Sveg & Sundberg 2015, pp. 391–402)

2.3 The Role of the Vocal Folds

The most important function of breathing is, of course, to keep us alive and to oxygenate the blood. Even in this context, the vocal folds play a role, as they close when we swallow in order to prevent food and liquid from entering the lungs. They also open and close when we cough. When lifting heavy objects, the vocal folds close so that the expanded rib cage can function as additional support and to prevent all the air from leaking out at once. (Lindblad 1994, p. 21)

The researchers behind the study of the seven singers also argue that subglottal pressure is not regulated solely by the respiratory muscles, but is created through a combination of respiratory activity and what happens around the glottis. They maintain that support should be viewed as a dynamic phenomenon consisting of good coordination between these two factors. They further add that what happens above the glottis—how open or closed the vocal tract is—may play a role in how the singer experiences the use of support. (Sonninen, Laukkanen, Karma & Hurme 2005, p. 234)

In an article published in The Choral Journal (2010, pp. 53–59), singing teacher and researcher³ Duane Cottrell at Portland State University emphasizes that this understanding is necessary when choir conductors attempt to help their singers control airflow, for example in order to sing long phrases. He argues that it is important not to focus solely on teaching support as something that happens in the abdominal musculature, but also to take glottal muscle coordination into account—something he claims few singing teachers do. He writes that if the vocal folds are not used correctly, it does not matter how well the air is managed; the tone will still sound weak and breathy. A term that is proposed as a substitute, or at least a complement, to the word support is resistance.

Lindblad (1992, p. 132) also writes the following:

Different voice types with varying resistance in the glottis produce highly variable amounts of sound energy in exchange for a given subglottal pressure.

³ Research primarily focused on how voice science can be applied to choral singing.

This brief overview of how the glottis affects phonation* highlights a missing puzzle piece in singing pedagogy, where the focus is often primarily on controlling airflow through the abdominal muscles.

2.4 The Role of Inhalation

Although appoggio is often defined as maintaining activity in the inhalatory muscles during phrases, many support exercises focus on exhalation. For example, singers practice controlling airflow by sustaining a long s sound or by singing the entire alphabet on one breath. A study from 2025 is particularly interesting in this context, as it instead examined how training inhalation can affect singing.

Eight classical singers were asked to test a so-called inspiratory muscle warm-up (IWU), in which inhalation was made more strenuous using a device. The device was set to 40% of maximal inspiratory pressure, and the singers performed 30 inhalations in two sets, in combination with a regular vocal warm-up. When compared with the control group, which only performed a standard vocal warm-up, differences were observed: the IWU group showed increases in both maximal inspiratory pressure and expiratory pressure. Put simply, this meant that they had increased respiratory capacity.

It was also found that IWU caused the singers to perceive singing as 11.6% easier and freer, and that the frequency of high notes improved by 17.8%, compared to the control group’s 10.9%. IWU also helped the singers sustain both high and low notes for longer durations. High notes could be sustained 32.17% longer and low notes 27.11% longer. The control group, which only performed a regular warm-up, showed no significant differences in this regard. (Yilmaz, Bostanci & Eken 2025, pp. 1–8)

It is clear that neither singing methods nor scientific research have been able to arrive at a single definition of the term support, and that many factors influence singing technique—some of which we may not even be consciously aware of. For this reason, it is worth examining how the concept is described in singing literature. First, however, a brief overview of how the voice works follows.

3 How the Voice Works

This section provides a brief overview of what happens in the body when we sing. With this basic knowledge, it becomes easier to understand what the authors examined in this study are describing.

The singing voice functions in the same way as the speaking voice and requires the cooperation of three different systems: the respiratory system*, the larynx (where the vocal folds are located), and the articulatory system. (Lindblad 1992, p. 13) The respiratory system works by increasing the size of the thoracic cavity, thereby allowing air to flow into and out of the body. (Dimon 2018, p. 1) The lungs rest on top of the diaphragm. In order for air to be drawn in, the muscle fibers contract, causing the diaphragm to descend. This creates lower air pressure in the lungs, resulting in air being drawn in. When we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original position. (Morris & Hutchison 2017, p. 12)

There are two types of exhalation: passive and active. Passive exhalation is used during normal breathing without intentional manipulation and is a non-muscular process. Active exhalation requires the engagement of additional muscles. (Morris & Hutchison 2017, p. 17)

The vocal folds*, often referred to as vocal cords, are located in the larynx. Sound is produced thanks to them, as air from the respiratory system passes through and causes them to open and close rapidly. (Dimon 2018, p. 34) The ability to control exhaled air while singing is not only about controlling breathing through the abdominal muscles. If the goal is to regulate subglottal pressure* so that air does not escape all at once, this can also be achieved by adjusting the glottis to allow an appropriate amount of air to pass through. The more open the airflow pathway is, the lower the pressure beneath the vocal folds will be. (Lindblad 1994, p. 74)

In fact, phonation is not only about subglottal pressure, but also about balance with supraglottal pressure*. In recent years, so-called SOVT exercises (semi-occluded vocal tract) have become very popular, as they allow singers to balance different air pressures by partially blocking airflow in various ways. (Williams 2024, p. 147) Lip trills are one example, used by Céline Dion and many other artists. (Dion 2013) Straw phonation is another type of SOVT exercise, in which phonation occurs through a straw or similar device, with or without water.

4 Theory and Method

This study examines five different books on singing technique written in English in the United Kingdom and the United States over a thirty-year period (1994–2024). Relevant chapters dealing with breathing and support were read and carefully summarized, after which the content was presented in a synthesized form. The method is qualitative and comparative. Qualitative methods are characterized by interpretation and analysis, involving in-depth engagement with the material. (Rienecker & Stray Jørgensen 2017, p. 174)

In order to conduct a comparative study—i.e. to compare the five books used as material—analytical questions were employed. Analytical questions function as a guide when analyzing texts, and are particularly helpful when examining multiple texts, as they allow the same questions to be posed to each one. (Ahrne & Svensson 2025, pp. 183–185) The analytical questions used were:

• Does the author use the term support, and if so, how is it defined?

• What does the author write about breathing and control of airflow?

• What is the author’s understanding of the concept of support, and which terms or descriptions are used instead or as complements?

In conducting the study, I have assumed that the Swedish term stöd is synonymous with the English term (breath) support. When other terms have appeared, I have translated them and included the English term in parentheses to clearly account for the concepts being used.

The reason why the term support, in connection with breathing technique for singing, is used and described in so many different ways can be explained through the theory of tacit knowledge. This concept is presented in the book Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (2005) by the Hungarian-British chemist and philosopher Michael Polanyi, first published in 1958. In the book, he describes how, in all subjects and areas of life, there exists knowledge that is difficult to communicate or put into words. One follows a set of rules that one may not even be aware of. One example he gives is that a swimmer stays afloat by adjusting their breathing—something that happens automatically and of which few are consciously aware. The same applies to how cyclists maintain balance. It is possible to describe how one moves in order not to fall, but this knowledge does not help someone learning to ride a bicycle; they must learn it themselves and rely on sensation rather than explicit knowledge. (pp. 51–52)

Putting tacit knowledge into words, or even explaining what that knowledge consists of, can be difficult. Polanyi uses pianists’ fingertip sensitivity as an example of tacit knowledge that was later found to have a scientific explanation for something that might otherwise be dismissed as illogical—the key strikes a hammer inside the piano, and one might assume that it should not make much difference how the key is pressed. It turned out that the sound produced by the key itself as it is depressed also affects the tone. According to Polanyi, this illustrates the risk of dismissing real knowledge simply because it does not fit within the theoretical framework being used. At the same time, this type of criticism is necessary in order to identify phenomena based on superstition or pseudoscience. Sometimes a phenomenon may be explained in one way but later shown to have a different explanation, such as hypnosis, which was once explained through various forms of magnetism. However, the fact that magnetism was not involved does not mean that hypnosis was merely an invention without scientific basis. (Polanyi 2005, pp. 53–54)

When it comes to acquiring tacit knowledge, Polanyi argues that this can only occur through learning from a master. For example, no matter how much one attempts to use scientific methods to recreate Stradivarius violins, the knowledge required to build them has been lost because it was never passed on. (Polanyi 2005, pp. 55–56)

In the book Tacit and Explicit Knowledge (2010) by British sociologist of science Harry Collins, tacit knowledge is divided into several subcategories, of which somatic (bodily) tacit knowledge is the most relevant to singing. He writes that, in principle, all somatic tacit knowledge can be expressed in words and described—at least when the aim is to scientifically and objectively describe what is happening and which processes are activated. At the same time, it is impossible to summarize all aspects of tacit knowledge verbally, since it must be adapted to the situation and is often experience-based. (p. 117) According to Collins, we acquire tacit knowledge through practical practice and imitation, and he argues that this is often a more effective way of learning than receiving explicit instructions. (pp. 100–106)

Collins also refers to the Dreyfus model, which breaks learning down into five stages:

• Stage 1: The novice follows explicit rules. The result is strained and mechanical.

• Stage 2: The novice begins to recognize patterns and create personal reference points.

• Stage 3: The learner has acquired sufficient practice across different contexts and situations to begin relying more on sensation.

• Stage 4: The learner perceives a whole and can use tacit knowledge independently.

• Stage 5: The learner has become an expert and uses tacit knowledge automatically, without reflection.

Collins illustrates these stages using the example of learning to drive a car—from consciously trying to determine when to shift gears to being able to drive to work without concentrating. (Collins 2010, p. 102) According to Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus, who developed the model, competence develops only through exposure to real situations in which the learner, either independently or with the help of a teacher, notices meaningful patterns that give context to explicit knowledge. Once the expert stage is reached, the individual has encountered so many situations that it feels natural which response is appropriate in each one. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, pp. 8–12)

Singers and singing teachers therefore have tacit knowledge “embedded” in their bodies. In this context, tacit knowledge means knowing how singing should feel in order for the voice to feel free and usable as intended. This sensation is difficult to communicate and has been developed through many hours of practice for most individuals. At the same time, the knowledge can be formulated scientifically, but this requires that the teacher actually possesses the necessary explicit knowledge. When it comes to singing technique—and in this case, how support is described or taught—a singer may know exactly how singing should feel, but how does one explain this, and how is this knowledge communicated to others? This will be examined more closely in the following section.

In summary, tacit knowledge refers to the ability to perform a practical task that one cannot fully explain, and it is acquired through imitation and personal practice. In this thesis, I use this definition of tacit knowledge when reviewing and comparing the material in order to determine how the concept of support is used and why the authors express themselves in different ways.

5 Material

The books listed below were used as material for this study. I specifically chose to examine English-language singing literature, as I was unable to find a sufficient number of books that described the subject in depth in Swedish. I selected books that do not advocate a specific singing method, nor are they intended to focus exclusively on singing within a single genre. Because the books are general in nature and I personally recognize many of their ideas from a variety of contexts, I consider them representative of the language often encountered when “ordinary” singers learn to sing, in settings such as municipal music schools, upper secondary music programs, adult education associations, and choirs.

It would also have been possible to choose books written exclusively about opera, heavy metal, or jazz, in which case the language used might differ even more between books. Different singing methods also employ different terminology. However, since I am interested in how “ordinary people” without a specific niche understand the concept of support, these five books have proven to be well-suited for this study.

Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults – Jenevora Williams (2024)
Aimed at singing teachers with a voice-scientific approach. Although the book primarily focuses on teaching children and young people to sing, most of the content is also applicable to adults.

Find Your Voice – The No.1 Singing Tutor – Jo Thompson (2014)
Written for singers who want to learn more about their instrument. It is not overly technical, but rather intended as a practical guide for amateur singers.

The Solo Singer in the Choral Setting: A Handbook for Achieving Vocal Health – Margaret Olson (2010)
An academically oriented book aimed at musically trained choral conductors. The intention is to support soloists in choral contexts, but much of the content is broadly applicable.

On the Art of Singing – Richard Miller (1996)
Frequently used in university-level education in English-speaking countries.⁴ The book consists of numerous chapters that combine an engaging narrative style with insights from voice science.

The Functional Unity of the Singing Voice – Barbara Doscher (1994)⁵
This book is also well known within the English-speaking academic music world, as it was written to function as a textbook for college-level education and has been widely disseminated. (Nix 2020) Vocal training from a scientific perspective is the main focus.

The first two books by Williams (2024) and Thompson (2014) were chosen because I was already familiar with their perspectives on the subject and found them interesting to compare. I have followed Williams’s research and have also engaged with her material through various online courses and podcasts. I purchased Thompson’s book in a music store in Edinburgh around 2017, and based on the store’s displays and the staff’s enthusiasm, I gained the impression that it was a very popular book in the United Kingdom.

The remaining three books by Olson (2010), Miller (1996), and Doscher (1994) were chosen because I noticed that these titles frequently appeared in the reference lists of various academic articles I read while preparing the study.

⁴ For example, at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (Course Syllabus [MUS 746], 2023)
⁵ The edition used in this study was republished in 2023.

6 Review of how the concept of support is used in five books on singing

In this section, I will account for what the five books used as source material say about support and breathing technique. The review begins with the most recent book and proceeds progressively backwards in time.

6.1 Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults

Jenevora Williams was the first singing teacher in the United Kingdom to obtain a doctorate in voice science. Today (2025), she is primarily engaged in research and educational work within vocal health and singing pedagogy. (jenevorawilliams.com 2025) The book contains practical information for singing teachers on how to structure singing lessons, but it also addresses how the voice functions.

Williams advocates questioning common assumptions about the singing voice and writes:

This book seeks to question every aspect of children’s voices and methods of teaching singing that we may have assumed to be correct. If these ideas can stand up to scrutiny in the light of the most recent evidence, then they are the best we have for the moment. (Williams 2024, p. 2)

According to Williams, the voice can be difficult to understand because we cannot see what happens inside the body. As a result, singers and teachers have historically relied on how singing feels and how it sounds. She acknowledges that classical teaching methods based on this tacit knowledge have worked very well for many singers, even if they did not know exactly how their instrument functioned. At the same time, she argues for providing singers with more knowledge, which may be particularly helpful for singers who develop vocal problems or who simply do not have the same natural talent as others. (Williams 2024, p. 3)

6.1.1 Williams’ concept of support

Regarding the concept of support, Williams writes:

This term is so often misused and misunderstood that many people I know tend to avoid it when teaching. (Williams 2024, pp. 135–136)

When an inexperienced singer is asked to sing with more support, the result is often that they tense the middle of the abdomen, which is not helpful. (Williams 2024, p. 135) Support is not about effort, but about maintaining stability in airflow and air pressure. This is something the body does well automatically if it retains the mobility it needs, and it is too complex to perform consciously, as it must constantly be adjusted depending on vowel, pitch, loudness, and position within the phrase. The best way to sing with support (according to Williams’ definition of the term, maintaining stability in airflow and air pressure) is to breathe in a way that is consistent, yet adjustable and flexible. It is important not to use excessive effort. If energy diminishes at the end of a phrase or if the pitch drops, this often indicates that the breathing is not optimal. (Williams 2024, p. 136)

6.1.2 Williams on breathing and control of airflow

The mobility that Williams considers indispensable for unimpeded singing she refers to as body balance, and she writes that breathing and balance are so interdependent that they cannot be discussed separately. Effective breathing is impossible if the body is not relaxed, and for this to occur, appropriate posture must be found. This sense of bodily balance is not about standing rigidly upright. On the contrary, there needs to be a light, springy feeling. The body should be able to move freely in any direction, without restriction. Sometimes this may resemble what is traditionally considered good posture, but this is individual. It is not posture itself that matters, but being relaxed and able to move freely. When this is achieved, breathing will feel free, and there is less risk of tension in the abdominal muscles. (Williams 2024, p. 130)

Williams includes two exercises intended to help with controlling exhalation. The first exercise involves placing the hands on the abdomen and producing a hissing sound while the abdomen moves inward, as if trying to put on a pair of trousers that are one size too small. The second exercise is similar but performed on voiced consonants. The aim is to find good coordination rather than to use muscular strength. (Williams 2024, pp. 132–133)

Regarding the diaphragm, Williams points out that many singing teachers and choral conductors instruct their students to “sing from the diaphragm,” which she argues is not only difficult to visualize but anatomically impossible. She writes that because the diaphragm is located so deep within the body, we cannot feel it regardless of what we do. Since it is necessary for breathing in order to sustain life, it is controlled by the autonomic nervous system* and lacks sensory nerves. This means that we cannot feel whether it is tensing or relaxing. (Williams 2024, pp. 137–138) The diaphragm is active during inhalation, not during phonation. This means that it does not help singers to think about how they use the diaphragm while singing; rather, it is primarily the abdominal muscles that can be consciously engaged during breathing. (Williams 2024, p. 4) At the same time, she acknowledges that diaphragmatic breathing* is indeed important for singing, in the sense that the singer needs to take deep breaths so that the abdomen protrudes slightly during inhalation. Intercostal* breathing or clavicular* breathing alone is not sufficient. However, diaphragmatic breathing occurs automatically when the body has appropriate posture. (Williams 2024, p. 137)

There is a relationship between the diaphragm and the control of exhalation. When the lungs are full of air, their natural elasticity contributes to a pressure that pushes the air outward, and if this pressure is not counteracted by the respiratory musculature, the air will escape more quickly than desired. To prevent this, it is particularly important at the beginning of a phrase to maintain a sense that the inhalation muscles remain engaged at the very start of exhalation. Williams describes this as a gentle thought and adds that it does not mean the singer should feel as though they are tensing anything in the upper body to maintain an even airflow. She illustrates the sensation as lightly braking while driving downhill so as not to go too fast. (Williams 2024, p. 138)

6.1.3 Williams’ view of the concept of support

Williams (2024) prefers to discuss breathing without using the term support, which she believes is overused while remaining poorly defined. She even considers it a potentially problematic term because it may be misunderstood as squeezing the abdominal muscles (p. 135). Instead, she writes about breathing in terms of finding balance and, through good posture and flexibility, providing the body with what it needs to regulate airflow on its own (p. 136).

6.2 Find Your Voice – The No. 1 Singing Tutor

Jo Thompson is a British singing teacher who has worked with artists such as James Morrison, Ellie Goulding, and The Overtones, and has also been involved in the television and film industries. (Thompson 2014, p. 215) Find Your Voice is written to help singers learn more about their own voices by serving as a practical guide to both developing vocal technique and improving stage performance. (Thompson 2014, p. 8)

6.2.1 Thompson’s concept of support

Thompson argues that almost every singer and singing teacher defines support differently. However, there is general agreement that it concerns controlling the air while singing and that it is fundamental to vocal technique. Without support, a singer lacks control over phrase length, tone quality, resonance, and dynamics, and it is also crucial for vocal range. (Thompson 2014, p. 21) She writes that the goal is to achieve an even, flowing sound, and therefore one must find an even, flowing breath. This requires the singer to control the air and release it gradually in order to sustain tones and phrases. She states that this is what is commonly referred to as support. (Thompson 2014, p. 14)

The transversus abdominis* should be constantly activated, although it may need to be engaged more intensely at times, for example when singing a high or long note. (Thompson 2014, p. 17) The “correct” use of support involves slowing down or controlling the inward movement of the abdominal muscles, which in turn controls the movement of the diaphragm. Thompson argues that, given what we know about the diaphragm’s movements during inhalation and exhalation, this approach aligns well with natural breathing function. (Thompson 2014, p. 21)

At the same time, she claims that some singing teachers still (she explicitly uses the word “still,” implying that this is an outdated approach) argue that one should resist the diaphragm’s upward movement by engaging in what she calls “pushing out” (implicitly the abdominal muscles) during exhalation. She adds that this method of using support is often preferred by men because it is physically demanding, although some women also use it. Thompson herself was taught this method when she was younger and believes it did not work for her, but instead led to tension and felt unnatural. (Thompson 2014, p. 21)

Many people believe that strong abdominal muscles are required to control the diaphragm, which is not the case. One should not squeeze the abdominal muscles or force the air; rather, the desired sensation is a light activation of the deep abdominal muscles during exhalation. Attempting to engage the external and internal oblique muscles may lead to excessive pressure on the larynx* and the vocal folds. (Thompson 2014, p. 22)

At the onset of each phrase, it is recommended that the muscles be engaged and ready to work, with the navel lightly drawn toward the spine. Support can also be described as a kind of springiness in the lower abdomen during exhalation, and it is important to maintain control of the transversus abdominis after activation, as losing this control also results in a loss of breath control. Every phrase should be sung with support, from beginning to end. (Thompson 2014, p. 22) When singing high or long notes, the entire body should be engaged, and it can be helpful to imagine a springy, energetic sensation in which the sound spreads out over a platform of supported air. Thompson explains that she personally always imagines the sound moving downward, opening outward, and spreading across the pelvic floor while simultaneously opening the shoulders and ribcage. (Thompson 2014, p. 23)

She recommends using visualization to learn how to use support and finding descriptions that incorporate downward and open imagery. One can imagine holding the ends of a resistance band at eye level and then lowering it toward the navel, creating a sensation of drawing the sound into the body. It is important not to use excessive pressure, as this can cause excessive tension in the laryngeal muscles and result in too much pressure on the vocal folds. Another important factor for support is that the larynx should be low and relaxed during singing. However, this does not mean that the larynx should be forced into an unnaturally low position. (Thompson 2014, p. 23)

Thompson summarizes her definition of support as the coordinated cooperation of the muscles that control breathing, as she has described, combined with a low and relaxed larynx. This can be achieved by imagining a large, round tube or column as wide as the body, extending from the back of the throat down into the body. The larynx should feel like a weight leaning downward within the tube. While singing, one should imagine a beach ball being pushed down under water and wanting to float back up again. The ball, symbolizing the voice, is imagined as being pressed down beneath the diaphragm as it moves upward, creating a sensation of compression. (Thompson 2014, p. 23)

6.2.2 Thompson on breathing and control of airflow

Inhalation involves air being drawn into the lungs as they expand, and air leaving the lungs through the trachea and out through the nose or mouth. The diaphragm is likened to a bellows that rises and falls, thereby filling and emptying the lungs. (Thompson 2014, pp. 12–13) Thompson emphasizes how important it is for singers to become aware of their breathing: what does it feel like to breathe deeply, and what does it feel like to control the breath? (Thompson 2014, p. 13)

She describes clavicular breathing as shallow breathing typical of panic, which can hinder singers who are nervous. She also includes a short section on intercostal breathing, which she notes is advocated by some singing teachers and which she herself was taught in the past. However, although the intercostal muscles do assist in controlling the diaphragm during exhalation, she believes it is a mistake to focus on these muscles, as this can lead to excessive bodily tension. (Thompson 2014, p. 14)

Thompson advocates diaphragmatic breathing and explains that three layers of abdominal muscles work together: the rectus abdominis*, the external and internal obliques, and finally the deepest layer, the transversus abdominis. It is this latter muscle group that must be controlled. When these muscles are activated, a sense of internal control is created, but it should not feel like squeezing, tensing, or forcing anything. These are the muscles activated during effective diaphragmatic breathing, not the outer abdominal muscles. (Thompson 2014, p. 15) One should not attempt to breathe in ways that feel uncomfortable, but always strive for breathing to feel relaxed. (Thompson 2014, p. 17)

6.2.3 Thompson’s view of the concept of support

Thompson (2014) holds what I would describe as a traditional view of support. Although she acknowledges that many different definitions and methods exist, she believes that there is a correct way to use support and has no objection to using the term itself. In practice, she seems to describe support in two ways: one relatively scientific, involving an awareness of muscular cooperation to control airflow (p. 21), and another in which support is more of a sensation achieved through visualization (p. 23).

6.3 The Solo Singer in the Choral Setting – A Handbook for Achieving Vocal Health

When Margaret Olson wrote this book, published in 2010, she was working as a professor and coordinator of vocal studies at Morgan State University in Baltimore. Her articles have been published in Choral Journal and Journal of Singing. (Olson 2010, pp. 197–198) The book is intended to assist choral singers and, in particular, soloists in choral contexts, as the voice is used differently in choral and solo singing. (Olson 2010, pp. ix, xv)

6.3.1 Olson’s concept of support

When Olson discusses the term support (breath support), she explains that it often has a more specific meaning than breath management. Support refers to muscular balance during all phases of breathing, but particularly during the exhalation phase while singing. Support can mean different things to different singers, and some may experience tension or rigidity in the abdominal muscles, even though the actual goal is to activate these muscles and allow the air to flow without becoming overly rigid. (Olson 2010, p. 8)

Appoggio is described as being “closely related” to support. Appoggio is said to be a system in which the muscles and organs of the upper body and throat are controlled in relation to the supraglottal resonators so that no single component dominates. In other words, balance is achieved. Good appoggio technique is not only about muscular balance; it also involves a specific way of activating the abdominal muscles, which should not be pushed outward or tensed. There should be a balance between the activity of the abdominal muscles and the muscles of the throat, optimizing tone quality and providing “support” (Olson here chooses to place the word support in quotation marks) to the phrase. It is not specified which muscles of the throat are involved, although it can be assumed that Olson refers to muscles in the larynx. It is essential for singers to learn to find balance between the muscles of the throat, the ribcage, and the abdominal muscles throughout the entire breathing cycle. (Olson 2010, p. 8)

6.3.2 Olson on breathing and control of airflow

The section on breathing begins by emphasizing the importance of good posture. Richard Miller, whose book is examined next in this study, is quoted and credited with best describing posture by calling it “noble.” This is considered a much more effective way of instructing singers, as it sounds positive and avoids a tedious anatomical explanation. When standing, the spine should be upright and elongated but not rigid. The feet should be placed approximately one foot-length apart, and the knees should not be locked. The sternum should be lifted, but not excessively. The purpose of this posture is to allow the ribcage to fully expand and contract. Breathing for singing differs from everyday breathing in that it requires conscious control of airflow. Breathing can be divided into four stages, not merely inhalation and exhalation. After inhalation, the breath may be briefly held, a phase known as suspension. After exhalation, there is a phase known as recovery. (Olson 2010, p. 5)

The primary muscles of exhalation are the intercostal muscles between the ribs, while the external intercostal muscles facilitate inhalation. The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle that flattens during inhalation and returns to its original position during exhalation. As the ribcage expands and the diaphragm lowers, the intercostal muscles stretch the lungs and create a vacuum that draws air into the lungs. This downward movement displaces the internal organs slightly, causing the abdomen to protrude. Although the muscles surrounding the ribcage and the abdominal muscles are separate, they work together during exhalation. (Olson 2010, p. 5)

The suspension phase of the breath is the brief moment between inhalation and the onset of singing, and it should not be perceptible to anyone other than the singer. This is when most singers engage their abdominal muscles to support the breath and the tone. These muscles include the rectus abdominis, the external and internal obliques, and the transversus abdominis. During the exhalation phase, the rate at which air leaves the lungs must be adjusted according to the musical phrase, the register in which the singer is singing, and the technique employed. The internal intercostal muscles assist the ribs and diaphragm in returning to their original positions. Under ideal conditions, the singer should maintain engagement of the abdominal muscles until the end of the phrase, while the sides and front of the ribcage remain expanded. This prevents air from escaping too quickly and ensures that the ribs and abdominal muscles do not relax at the beginning of the phrase. (Olson 2010, p. 7) It is worth noting that Olson does not use the word support in this section.

The recovery phase of breathing is described as an opportunity to reset in preparation for the next phrase and to shape how it will be executed. The singer should experience a sense of relaxation in the abdominal muscles before initiating the next inhalation. The length of the recovery phase depends on how much time the music allows. Throughout all phases of breathing, the upper chest, shoulders, neck, and head should remain still. (Olson 2010, p. 7)

6.3.3 Olson’s view of the concept of support

Olson (2010) both claims that support is something most singers use (p. 7) and that support can mean different things to different people (p. 8). At the same time, she personally prefers the term appoggio. Nevertheless, she summarizes what many would describe as support work without using either the term support or appoggio, instead referring simply to balance between different muscle groups.

6.4 On the Art of Singing

This book is one of eight written by Richard Miller (1926–2009) on singing. He was himself a singer and singing teacher and served as professor of singing at the Oberlin College and Conservatory in Ohio from 1964 to 2004. (oberlin.edu, n.d.) On the Art of Singing aims to compile the information available about vocal technique at the time of publication (1996) and make it accessible and comprehensible to both singers and singing teachers. Miller argues that this is necessary because numerous ideas circulate about how one “should” sing, many of which are not grounded in science. In a humorous tone, however, he warns the reader and acknowledges that he, as an author, has his own ideas that he hardly attempts to conceal, and that he views himself as a missionary who needs to spread them and hopes to convert others to his teachings. (Miller 1996, p. 1)

6.4.1 Miller’s concept of support

In the chapter “Sharpening Up Some Old Pedagogical Saws” (where old saw roughly means cliché), Miller discusses pedagogical concepts that he believes are so deeply embedded in singing instruction that they will likely continue to be used in some form. He begins by writing about breath management, specifically the idea of using the diaphragm to support the voice. (Miller 1996, p. 75) While the instruction to “sing from the diaphragm” may lead some upper-body muscles to engage in ways that facilitate airflow control, it is nevertheless based on misleading information regarding both the diaphragm’s location and its function. Singing teachers sometimes claim that the diaphragm moves up or down depending on whether one sings high or low notes, or that it can be filled with air. (Miller 1996, p. 76)

Although both the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles are important for breathing, much of what singers attribute to the diaphragm is actually the activation of other muscles. Because we lack proprioception* for the diaphragm and are unaware of its actions, we cannot control it directly. Despite this, many singing teachers claim that the diaphragm must be able to move up and down, as well as in and out, and singers sometimes identify themselves as “in-and-up singers” or “down-and-out singers.” The latter group operates on the principle that expanding the lower abdomen creates tension that prevents the diaphragm from moving upward. “In-and-up singers,” by contrast, imagine a “physiologically inexplicable” column of air that must move from the abdominal muscles toward the larynx, or attempt to draw in the abdominal muscles while keeping the ribcage elevated to make the diaphragm support the voice. There are many variations of these two theories, and they are risky for singers because they are based on misconceptions. (Miller 1996, p. 76)

He even writes:

The old saw about ’controlling the diaphragm for singing’ dies hard. (Miller 1996, p. 76)

Regarding appoggio, Miller discusses the origin of the term and the technique’s important role in the Italian singing school of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He does not use the word support, but instead writes about breath management and explains that appoggio is a specific technique in which the abdominal wall remains in the inhalation position longer than it does during speech. Onset exercises can be used to train this technique. The singer takes a deep but silent breath, which separates the vocal folds. Phonation then begins with a quick “attack,” bringing the vocal folds together. The tone is ended by another silent, quick inhalation, after which the process is repeated. Gradually, the exercise can be lengthened. It is possible to see whether a singer is using appoggio. The posture is “noble,” the upper chest remains still during both inhalation and phonation, and the inward movement of the abdominal muscles is delayed until the end of the phrase. (Miller 1996, p. 77)

Miller’s effort to dismantle myths becomes particularly clear in a chapter titled The Flat-Earth School of Vocal Pedagogy. The title alludes to pseudoscience and suggests that there are teachings within the world of singing that are not scientifically accurate, comparable to claims that the Earth is flat. He lists 30 points that he considers common misconceptions among singing teachers, of which points 1–11 concern support. (Miller 1996, p. 71)

According to Miller, it is a myth that one should control breathing by holding the diaphragm in a fixed position, draw in the abdomen to keep the diaphragm in place longer, support high notes by exerting force with the diaphragm, press the diaphragm downward for high notes, or pull it upward for low notes. He also does not advocate lowering the chest to breathe deeply, holding the breath during long phrases to conserve air, or attempting to “place” the tone in a column of air extending from the lower abdominal muscles to the larynx. He then lists additional support-related practices that he does not recommend, of a more controversial and bodily nature, such as tilting the pelvis forward and clenching the buttocks to straighten the spine, while simultaneously releasing tension in the chest and tightening the anal sphincter, all in order to support high notes. Some singing teachers even suggest thinking about childbirth or defecation, or using the sexual organs to provide additional support. (Miller 1996, p. 71)

These misconceptions often create more problems than they solve, and many experienced singers become skeptical of such instructions because they have previously been taught things that did not help their singing and that they later had to unlearn. (Miller 1996, p. 72) Instructions on how to use the diaphragm while singing are often physiologically impossible, and singing teachers generally do not know the role of this muscle in inhalation and exhalation, or even its precise location. Miller estimates that 50% of various singing methods are based on incorrect assumptions about the diaphragm. He goes so far as to write that professional singers succeed in singing despite what they have been taught by their singing teachers. (Miller 1996, p. 73)

As an example of how the concept of support can be used unproductively, Miller recounts the case of a 19-year-old baritone enrolled in a performance-focused singing program. The student sang with a highly nasal tone, which the teacher noticed. Instead of helping the student find a higher position of the soft palate to prevent air from escaping through the nose, several attempts were made to manipulate the tone through imagined placement, using vague instructions such as sending the sound through a funnel or singing inward toward the spine. After repeated attempts, the nasal tone quality remained, and the teacher concluded that the problem must be insufficient support. The student was instructed to draw the abdomen inward during the phrase, which did not resolve the nasal tone. Finally, the teacher told the student to practice this at home, assuming that the problem would eventually resolve itself. (Miller 1996, pp. 41–43)

6.4.2 Miller on breathing and control of airflow

Miller’s book is structured differently from the other works examined in this study, which include chapters dedicated exclusively to breathing. Instead, he addresses a wide range of topics, and there is no specific chapter on the respiratory system. However, he does note that the commonly taught breathing technique of taking a “full” (or simply very deep) breath can become a disastrous combination when the singer simultaneously attempts to use the diaphragm to expel as much air as possible. It is essential for singers to learn to take a silent, complete breath without feeling as though they are activating upper-body muscles and without the ribcage visibly rising. Good breath management is not characterized by how much air the singer can use, but by the rate at which the air is expended. (Miller 1996, p. 77)

6.4.3 Miller’s view of the concept of support

Miller (1996) never explicitly states that he recommends training and using appoggio (which many use synonymously with the term support), but this is implied in the text (p. 77). What he does make very clear, however, is that he opposes the arbitrary use of the term support. He acknowledges that it is a concept likely to persist in vocal circles for a long time (p. 75), but considers it problematic to use without understanding what one actually means and how the voice functions anatomically (p. 76).

6.5 The Functional Unity of the Singing Voice

Barbara Doscher (1922–1996) was an American singing teacher and professor whose book has been widely used as course literature in vocal performance and vocal pedagogy programmes. (Vocal Pedagogy, Barbara Doscher, n.d.) The publication is intended as course literature at American colleges, but is also meant to serve as a resource for private voice teachers and teachers at music schools, choir conductors, and singers.⁶ (Doscher 2023, p. 8)

The book provides an overview of the singing mechanism, and its aim is not to advocate a particular singing method. Doscher argues that many singing teachers refuse to acknowledge the value of learning more about research on the singing voice. (Doscher 2023, pp. 14–15) Relatively few singers do everything correctly on their own, and many have technical vocal problems that their teachers need sufficient knowledge to address. A solid understanding of the respiratory system, vocal fold function, and resonance is necessary in order to diagnose and solve such problems. (Doscher 2023, p. 15)

⁶ The second edition referred to here was published in 2023 and includes an additional foreword and a section on Doscher in which her life and work are described by students and colleagues.

6.5.1 Doscher’s Concept of Support

Doscher writes that the term support is used by “everyone” who cares about the art form of singing. The goal is to employ a form of coordination between breathing and phonation in order to produce an even tone. Support should also ensure that the air lasts throughout singing and relieve tension in the throat. Support is further described as an antagonistic relationship between the muscles of inhalation and exhalation, and as a close relationship between subglottal pressure and vocal fold vibration, which is key to producing a full tone without excessive airflow.

The characteristically expanded rib cage of the professional singer is the result of a learned behaviour in which the upper rib cage remains in the inhalatory position, while the stronger lower abdominal muscles manage the exhalation. (Doscher 2023, pp. 38–39)

According to Doscher, “everyone” agrees on what one aims to achieve with support, but how this is accomplished is another matter. She cites Richard Luchsinger, who describes the subject as “puzzling in many respects”. (Doscher 2023, p. 38) Although support is important, it often presents a linguistic problem for singers. The word may be misunderstood and difficult to interpret, as the term support makes it sound as if the voice were a physical object that needs to be lifted. The diaphragm helps control airflow, but it does not support the tone. Asking a singer to use the diaphragm for support can therefore lead to extreme tension. (Doscher 2023, p. 39)

To achieve an even airflow without such tension, many teachers instead use imagery, such as feeling as though there is an air cushion around the waist, the sensation of floating and treading water, or balancing on a trampoline. The intention is to help students maintain the inhalatory position of the rib cage while allowing the abdominal muscles to control the outgoing air. Teachers who use such approaches often succeed in achieving the desired result. Doscher briefly considers whether it would be advantageous to replace the term support (breath support) with energy (breath energy). She concludes that as long as a singing method strives for freedom in the voice together with balance and control, the specific terminology used is of lesser importance. (Doscher 2023, pp. 39–40)

Support must not be confused with excessive muscle activation that prevents the singer from singing freely. Especially for young singers, it is important to maintain a low, steady airflow rather than a high and constantly fluctuating air pressure. Singing with high subglottal pressure before the throat muscles are fully developed is risky. Furthermore, Doscher emphasises that the abdominal muscles must not be overly tense and static, as they need to remain flexible and active. Static muscle use should be regarded as an enemy of breathing, just like any other form of rigid muscular engagement. Unfortunately, many believe that this very static quality in the abdominal muscles is what should be sought, and they attempt to conserve air by holding it back, which creates unwanted tension and may even result in greater air loss than if no attempt had been made at all. Holding back the air is likened to driving a car with the handbrake engaged. (Doscher 2023, p. 40)

Taking excessively deep breaths and attempting to fill the lungs as much as possible is also undesirable, as it increases tension in the throat muscles and leads to uneven airflow. Conversely, completely exhausting the air before taking a new breath can be equally counterproductive, as it causes fatigue. Doscher encourages breathing at every available opportunity, regardless of whether more air is immediately needed. She also identifies the habit of viewing breathing as the sole contributing factor to vocal quality as a reason why many singers use excessive air pressure and damage their voices. (Doscher 2023, p. 40)

Doscher also includes a quotation from Lamperti concerning what he termed lutte vocale (vocal struggle). The quotation addresses how air must be exhaled slowly while the inhalation muscles remain active, and how one should strive to retain the air in the lungs while the muscles responsible for exhalation work to expel it. According to Lamperti, this results in a struggle between two forces. (Doscher 2023, p. 37) Appoggio entails singing in such a way that the sensation of inhalation remains present during exhalation, resulting in inhalation and exhalation no longer being perceived as opposites. (Doscher 2023, p. 38)

A complementary perspective on support is also described. The inhalatory position of the rib cage should be maintained for as long as possible, while the abdominal muscles engage and the diaphragm gradually relaxes. The goal is to maintain balance. (Doscher 2023, p. 37)

One statement in the book that may appear contradictory suggests that some singers use the diaphragm during exhalation, while others do not, and that if any diaphragmatic activity occurs, it is usually at the end of exhalation. (Doscher 2023, p. 38)

An interesting passage addresses sedentary and quiet cultural behaviours as obstacles to effective breathing and support. A sedentary lifestyle leads to undertrained abdominal muscles, and in Northern Europe and North America spontaneous vocalisations such as laughter, crying, and groaning are often suppressed. This negatively affects the respiratory musculature, as these sounds activate the same muscles used in singing. If one cannot exhale forcefully and fully, one cannot inhale correctly either. (Doscher 2023, p. 46)

6.5.2 Doscher on Breathing and Airflow Control

Doscher explains that of the three ways of breathing—upper chest breathing, rib breathing, and diaphragmatic breathing—most agree that the optimal approach for singing is a combination of rib and diaphragmatic breathing. According to her, this is one of the few points on which singing teachers largely agree, and singers have very limited control over airflow when breathing is too shallow. Shallow breathing also introduces unwanted tension in the upper chest and results in poorer resonance. She even states that in some cases it may lead to damage to the vocal folds, although no specific explanation is given. She describes how air intake occurs in the body: the diaphragm activates and moves downward and forward, decreasing air pressure in the lungs so that air flows in. (Doscher 2023, pp. 35–36)

Doscher then explains that, contrary to popular belief, we have very little—or no—control over the movement of the diaphragm. This is because the diaphragm lacks proprioceptive nerve endings, making it impossible to feel its movement or position. She therefore argues that there is no physiological basis for teaching students to sing with the diaphragm. Breathing issues should instead be addressed by considering the respiratory system as a whole, rather than attempting to work solely with the diaphragm. Untrained singers often struggle to coordinate the breathing muscles to achieve an even airflow, in which the chest gradually collapses while the abdominal muscles move inward. Beginners often overactivate the antagonistic relationship between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles in an exaggerated attempt to use support, which can result in a dull and mechanical tone. (Doscher 2023, p. 36)

Subglottal pressure is also discussed. Pressure is described as the result of airflow plus the resistance provided by the vocal folds, and is identified as an important factor in vocal intensity. Doscher writes that pressure is primarily controlled through coordination between inhalation and the interaction between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. Adjustments that govern pitch and intensity appear to vary and are individual, and different muscular strategies may be employed, which may also depend on the singing methods the singer has been taught. (Doscher 2023, pp. 36–37)

How, then, does one achieve favourable subglottal pressure? Finding an optimal balance between airflow and air pressure is a constantly changing relationship, which can be assessed by how exhalation feels. If it feels easy yet steady, the balance is likely correct. However, if the air begins to run out, additional musculature around the vocal folds is activated to maintain airflow, causing subglottal pressure to increase excessively. This results in a form of “vocal inefficiency noted as throatiness or constriction,” that is, a strained tone quality (also referred to as pressed phonation). (Doscher 2023, p. 37)

Doscher concludes that there are many different schools of thought regarding breathing, and that from both empirical and scientific perspectives it is not possible to identify a single ultimate technique that works for everyone. (Doscher 2023, p. 40)

6.5.3 Doscher’s View of the Concept of Support

Doscher (2023) holds that support—defined as an antagonistic relationship between the breathing muscles in which balance between subglottal pressure and vocal fold function produces a full tone without excessive airflow—is of paramount importance for all singers (p. 39). At the same time, she considers the concept confusing and suggests using the term energy (breath energy) instead, in order to prevent unnecessary tension that may arise from misunderstandings of support. Ultimately, however, the most important factor is not the terminology itself, but the goal of singing freely and without obstruction. (pp. 39–40)

7 Analysis and Comparison of the Material

7.1.1 Descriptions of Support

All five authors mention the term support, but all also acknowledge that there are many different definitions. Several alternative terms appear either as substitutes for support or as ways of explaining its purpose and function:

• Breath management (Olson 2010, p. 8; Miller 1996, p. 75)

• Appoggio (Olson 2010, p. 8; Miller 1996, p. 77; Doscher 2023, p. 38)

• Balance (Williams 2024, p. 130; Olson 2010, p. 8)

• Flowing (Thompson 2014, p. 14)

• Energy (breath energy) (Doscher 2023, p. 39)

• Resistance (Doscher 2023, pp. 36–37)

• Noble posture (Olson 2010, p. 5; Miller 1996, p. 77)

• Stability (Williams 2024, p. 136)

• Subglottal pressure (Doscher 2023, pp. 38–39)

Although the authors appear to hold firm opinions on how support should be used “correctly,” these terms seem complementary rather than contradictory. All appear to strive for control over the tone without feeling restricted.

7.1.2 Breathing and Airflow Control

All authors include physiological descriptions of breathing and describe bodily processes in fairly similar ways. A common factor is that all emphasise the importance of the diaphragm as a breathing muscle, while also asserting that there is little point in attempting to sing differently by consciously manipulating its movement, as we lack direct control over it and cannot feel it.

Of the five books included in this study, Olson (2010, p. 5) is the only one to describe not only inhalation and exhalation but also two brief phases between them. However, a similar perspective on the breath can be discerned in Miller’s appoggio exercise (Miller 1996, p. 77), which is discussed further in the concluding discussion.

Williams includes several exercises aimed at conserving air. This approach to controlling exhalation would likely be classified by many as exercises for what is traditionally termed support. Williams’ decision to include this material in the section on breathing demonstrates a holistic perspective—recognising the interdependence of inhalation and exhalation—but also reflects her stance on the term support itself. (Williams 2024, pp. 132–133)

Both Doscher (2023, p. 40) and Williams (2024, p. 138) compare control of exhalation to braking. Williams describes the desired sensation as similar to braking while going downhill, thereby preventing all the air from escaping at once. She does not use the terms support or appoggio to describe this technique. In my view, the metaphor of braking downhill is easily understood—it conveys the idea of not letting the air escape completely unchecked. Describing it as a gentle sensation helps prevent misunderstandings in which the singer believes excessive abdominal engagement is required, leading to unwanted tension. Doscher, by contrast, writes that attempting to hold back the air is like driving with the handbrake engaged, which is not beneficial. These two braking metaphors may be interpreted as either complementary or contradictory. Would Doscher agree with Williams that a slight braking action is acceptable, or would she consider all attempts to restrain the air as inhibiting as applying the handbrake? This rhetorical question remains unanswered, but it illustrates how instructions can easily be interpreted differently.

Thompson emphasises the importance of singers reflecting on how diaphragmatic breathing feels and becoming more aware of their breathing. She also stresses that one should not attempt to breathe in a way that feels unnatural, even if instructed to do so by a teacher. (Thompson 2014, pp. 13, 17) This aligns closely with Miller’s description of “down-and-out singers” and “in-and-up singers,” where the fundamental idea is that forcing an unnatural breathing pattern is futile. (Miller 1996, p. 76)

7.1.3 The Authors’ Views on the Concept of Support

Williams (2024) and Miller (1996) stand out as critical of the concept of support, arguing that it is often used arbitrarily without a clear understanding of the intended goal, which can lead to misconceptions.

Thompson (2014) appears the most positive toward the use of the term. Her pedagogical approach, relying on vivid imagery and bodily sensation rather than physiological explanation, contrasts with the other authors, who prefer anatomical descriptions and may refer to a sensation of muscular engagement without excessive tension. Viewed through the lens of tacit knowledge, Thompson can be seen as attempting to convey tacit knowledge without explaining the underlying physiological mechanisms. The desired outcome is the correct sensation.

Doscher argues that the term support (breath support) could be replaced by energy (breath energy) due to frequent misunderstandings that cause tension and create more problems than they solve. She considers it problematic that breathing is blamed whenever something goes wrong, and even suggests that this mindset can damage singers’ voices. (Doscher 2023, p. 36) Miller (1996) similarly notes that support is often blamed for various technical vocal issues. He lists several methods by which others teach support that he considers incorrect, many of which sound highly strenuous, such as imagining the same muscular activity used during childbirth. Other instructions appear outright inappropriate for a teacher to give a student, such as activating sexual organs. Thompson (2014, p. 22) also writes that many believe strong abdominal muscles are necessary for support, which she argues is not the case.

This leads to another point of consensus among the authors: singing should not feel heavy or strenuous. Posture and movement are also considered important by all authors. Although they place varying emphasis on posture, they all acknowledge its impact on breathing and airflow control. However, there are points of disagreement between Thompson and Miller. The air column concept, which Miller (1996, p. 71) describes as outdated and misleading, closely resembles the technique advocated by Thompson (2014, p. 24), despite Miller’s book having been published 18 years earlier.

Olson (2010, pp. 7–8) adopts a relatively neutral stance toward the concept of support. She writes that all singers use it, but also acknowledges the existence of multiple definitions and prefers to speak of appoggio.

The authors thus agree on the following points:

• Singers must learn to control airflow so that it lasts while maintaining a desirable vocal quality (which may vary depending on genre and context).

• Singing should feel free and comfortable, but with a certain degree of resistance.

• Good posture and bodily mobility facilitate breathing.

• Diaphragmatic breathing is necessary, but conscious attempts to manipulate the diaphragm are unhelpful.

The authors do not fully agree on the following points:

• Which muscles and parts of the vocal apparatus are involved in the use of support.

• What one aims to achieve with what is termed support.

• The difference between appoggio and support.

• Whether instructing singing students to use support is beneficial or counterproductive.

8 Concluding Discussion

The comparison of how support is described in these five books clearly demonstrates that there is no single definition of the term. Several authors argue that arbitrary use of the concept without thorough explanation can lead to technical vocal problems.

Miller’s example of the 19-year-old baritone with a nasal tone (Miller 1996, pp. 41–43) illustrates the problem of viewing support as the solution to most vocal issues. Such situations are likely frustrating for both teacher and student and may hinder the singer’s development. I argue that greater knowledge of vocal anatomy would have provided the teacher with better tools to address the real problem. This example shows how tacit knowledge combined with insufficient explicit knowledge can lead to difficulties—the teacher knew how he wanted singing to feel for the baritone but could not identify the underlying issue. Drawing on the driving lesson analogy from Tacit and Explicit Knowledge (Collins 2010, p. 102), it is akin to a teacher lacking sufficient understanding of a car to instruct a learner effectively.

According to Miller, support is often cited as the root cause of various vocal problems. (Miller 1996, pp. 41–43) This aligns with my own experiences as a student and with feedback from my own students. Considering that studies on support indicate that glottal configuration, not breathing, makes the difference (Griffin et al. 1995, pp. 45–54), that differences between breathing techniques cannot be heard (Archer et al. 2011, p. 18), and that even experienced musicians cannot distinguish between singing with support and singing of good quality (Sonninen et al. 2005, pp. 223–237), one may question whether the concept of support truly warrants the prominence it has historically held in vocal pedagogy and singers’ awareness during lessons, practice, and performance.

Why might it be impossible to hear a difference between singing with or without support? Many singers are taught that support involves the abdominal muscles in some way, and in Swedish the term magstöd (abdominal support) is sometimes used. (SAOL 2015) It is therefore reasonable to assume that most singers in these studies activated their abdominal muscles in some manner during recordings where support was intended. The lack of audible difference—despite potential effects on subglottal pressure—may be explained by the singers’ voices being sufficiently trained to adjust subglottal pressure and glottal configuration independently and unconsciously, compensating so that sound quality remained similar. If so, this would suggest that there is no single correct way to use support, and that similar results can be achieved through different muscular combinations. This constitutes somatic tacit knowledge that singers themselves may not be consciously aware of and therefore find difficult to transmit to others.

8.1 Support or Appoggio

Appoggio is a term preferred by Miller (1996), Olson (2010), and Doscher (2023), but the authors do not consider it entirely synonymous with support. This is noteworthy, as the Swedish stöd and English support were originally translations of the Italian appoggio, yet the term now appears to have taken on a distinct meaning. This may relate to Doscher’s (2023, p. 39) argument that the word support suggests physically lifting an object rather than “leaning against something,” which is the original meaning of appoggio.

Terminology becomes particularly convoluted in Olson’s (2010) book, further highlighting the problem of word choice. According to her, breath management is not the same as breath support, and support is closely related to appoggio but not identical, yet it is described in nearly the same terms. This creates confusion. Can one have good breath management but insufficient support? Is there a difference in muscular activation between appoggio and “ordinary” support? Olson does not clarify the distinction, despite rejecting the idea that the terms are synonymous, even though some authors argue that they are. (Griffin et al. 1995, p. 45)

Regarding Miller’s exercise involving silent deep inhalations and attack-like phonation, it is worth noting that he does not explain why the exercise specifically aids appoggio. (Miller 1996, p. 77) While the exercise trains the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, responsible for opening and closing the vocal folds (Dimon 2018, p. 42), thereby increasing airflow resistance, it is unclear how it helps maintain the sensation of inhalation during phonation that characterises appoggio. Although the exercise appears intended to train the breathing muscles, it may be the increased vocal fold resistance that produces the effect. It is difficult to determine whether this reflects tacit knowledge or whether Miller consciously analysed which muscle groups were being trained. If the exercise was developed through experiential discovery of desired outcomes, it can be viewed as tacit knowledge; if it was designed based on deliberate analysis of targeted muscles, it represents explicit knowledge.

The instruction that inhalation should be rapid in Miller’s exercise is also noteworthy. While this often reflects practical singing conditions, results from the study discussed in section 2.4 on inspiratory warm-up (Yilmaz et al. 2025, pp. 1–8), where higher inspiratory pressure (likely resulting in slower inhalation) yielded positive outcomes, raise the question of whether the exercise could be modified to train appoggio more effectively. This illustrates how voice science can help singers train and warm up more efficiently and serve as a complementary explanatory model for exercises originally based on tacit knowledge. This will be revisited in section 8.3.

8.2 Resistance and Glottal Configuration

In my view, the influence of glottal configuration and subglottal pressure on tone and airflow control partly explains why support has been such a central concept in classical singing technique. In contemporary genres, airflow can be restricted by raising the posterior tongue or using so-called twang, narrowing the epilaryngeal tube to produce a sharper sound. In classical singing, this approach is stylistically inappropriate and represents a form of tacit knowledge that many singers are unaware of.

If, in addition, a singer faces the problem I once experienced—vocal folds leaking air because they do not close properly or cannot withstand the air pressure (often due to insufficient chest voice training, resulting in insufficient vocal fold mass)—then breath control via the abdominal muscles may feel indispensable, as it becomes the only perceived means of controlling airflow.

Given that vocal folds close when lifting heavy objects to prevent air from escaping the lungs all at once (Lindblad 1994, p. 21), it is reasonable to assume that excessive abdominal activation aimed at conserving air may primarily increase glottal resistance. Thus, it may not be the abdominal muscles that restrain airflow directly, but rather a chain reaction in which vocal fold engagement blocks the air. While this may work for some, it also introduces additional tension that could be avoided by addressing the underlying issue—insufficient vocal fold resistance. Training the vocal folds to close efficiently and activating the thyroarytenoid muscles to increase muscular mass allows them to better withstand airflow.

The complexity of the voice leads me to conclude that it is difficult, if not impossible, to formulate a breathing technique applicable to all singers, as Doscher (2023, p. 40) suggests. Even if such a technique could be articulated, it would necessarily involve a dynamic process requiring adjustment depending on the musical context, as Williams (2024, p. 136) also notes. This perspective aligns with insights that singers’ breathing patterns are often individual. (Archer et al. 2011, p. 22)

This supports Collins’ argument that tacit knowledge is best transmitted through imitation rather than verbal instruction. (Collins 2010, pp. 100–106) By listening, imitating, and sensing internally, students more easily learn what balanced singing feels like. This approach to teaching singing is fundamentally impossible to convey in book form.

8.3 Putting Tacit Vocal Knowledge into Words

It is now time to examine the concept of support in light of the theory of tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that is embodied and difficult to articulate explicitly. One is able to do something—such as riding a bicycle or singing—but relies far more on sensation than on following verbal instructions (Polanyi 2005, pp. 51–52). This type of knowledge is primarily acquired through imitation of others and through personal practice (Collins 2010, pp. 100–106).

Thompson’s descriptions of how one might think in order to activate support highlight the very problem that initially motivated this study. She attempts in numerous ways to convey tacit knowledge through abstract descriptions. The focus is on finding a particular bodily sensation. For some singers, certain descriptions may feel accurate, while others may not understand what they are supposed to do at all, and the physiological processes involved may feel entirely disconnected from this mode of thinking. At the same time, she appears to employ different metaphors and conceptual frameworks that are not always consistent with one another. She first writes that one should imagine the sound moving downward in order to open into a wide plateau (Thompson 2014, p. 23), only to then describe a straight column that is as wide as the body (Thompson 2014, p. 23).

Describing a sensation in the manner Thompson does, solely through text, can be problematic. Even if it is self-evident to Thompson how this feels in her own body, there is no guarantee that the reader will experience the same sensation. Nor is it clearly explained what one is actually trying to achieve by eliciting this bodily feeling. How does one know whether one is doing it correctly? And perhaps even more importantly, how does one know if one is doing it incorrectly?

The problem is further compounded by the fact that the information is conveyed in book form, without the singer having the opportunity to ask questions or listen to the teacher demonstrate. A similar issue can arise when choir singers receive general instructions from a conductor about how it should feel to sing with support. It is entirely possible that individuals within the same choir will interpret such instructions differently. Doscher (2023, p. 39) argues that instructions of this kind are often very effective for teaching support, but implicitly within a lesson context, where the singing teacher can convey tacit knowledge through means other than verbal explanation alone—by using body language, demonstrating, listening to, and correcting the student. Olson (2010, p. 8), like the other four authors, maintains that support can mean different things for different singers and can involve different types of muscular activation. In a lesson setting, it is also easier for the teacher to determine whether the student interprets the term support in the same way as the teacher does.

It cannot be ruled out that certain vocal exercises have emerged through means other than explicit knowledge or tacit knowledge—for example, through spontaneous invention (which may not be grounded in tacit knowledge if the person in question does not possess it), or through exercises being learned and then reproduced “incorrectly.” Many singers habitually perform the same exercises without knowing why, meaning that tradition also plays a role in determining which exercises are used. Williams addresses this in her book, which she even states was written in order to question traditional singing pedagogy (Williams 2024, p. 2).

At the same time, Polanyi (2005, pp. 53–54) emphasizes that tacit knowledge can sometimes give rise to phenomena that appear inexplicable (such as hypnosis) but that do, in fact, have a scientific explanation. Even if certain vocal exercises may not appear optimal when compared to current knowledge from voice science, some of them may still be useful for reasons we do not yet understand. In most cases, however, voice science can help analyze what these exercises are actually beneficial for and how they might be refined and made more effective. It can also assist singing teachers in explaining them in a clearer and more specific way. In this sense, explicit knowledge can contribute to making it easier for singers to internalize an exercise so that it more quickly becomes embodied tacit knowledge.

According to the Dreyfus model, the first two stages of learning consist of initially following instructions somewhat awkwardly, and then beginning to form one’s own reference points. Upon reaching the third stage, one has practiced sufficiently to begin relying more on sensation (Collins 2010, p. 102). The better the instructions provided at the outset, the easier it will be for beginners to practice correctly and find the appropriate sensations. The reference points that individuals must develop in order to make the knowledge their own and reach the third stage—where they can begin to trust their own sensations—are easier to navigate when they have access to appropriate exercises.

During the course of this study, it has become apparent to me that tacit knowledge without explicit knowledge can lead singers to draw incorrect conclusions. Thompson’s assertion that support aids both vocal range and dynamics is particularly interesting, as it is well established that vocal range is governed by the CT/TA* muscles that control pitch. Dynamics, too, can be influenced to some extent by the use of these muscles, since loudness is not determined solely by subglottal pressure, but also by how much mass of the vocal folds is vibrating, as well as by the articulatory apparatus, which plays a major role in resonance (Lindblad 1992, pp. 132–134). Here, one can see how Thompson, much like Lamperti (1890), suggests that a wide range of vocal aspects depend on correct use of support, even though scientific research clearly demonstrates that while control of subglottal pressure is an important factor, it is far from the whole explanation. Tradition appears to play a role here as well. Miller (1996, pp. 41–43) seems to have reached a similar conclusion, arguing that many singers are too quick to blame support when something is not functioning vocally. Most likely, this is not done with the intention to mislead, but rather because they lack a better explanatory model for their tacit knowledge.

Thompson has selected her preferred breathing technique based on having been taught something else that she felt did not work for her and that she experienced as unnatural (2014, p. 14). At the same time, it is reasonable to assume that the teacher who once taught those methods experienced them as genuinely effective and comfortable. This suggests, in my view, that support—or whatever term we choose to describe this area of vocal technique—may be highly individual, and that there is likely no single optimal way to control airflow. Ultimately, a wide range of muscle groups are involved, not only the abdominal musculature, but also the laryngeal muscles and the articulatory apparatus. We all have different strengths and weaknesses in these muscles, different habitual patterns of use in everyday life, and different forms of muscle memory that influence us even when we attempt to breathe and sing in new ways.

8.4 Vocal Technique Without the Word Support

After examining these five books and comparing them with current research, it has become clear that there is no consensus on what the term support actually means. However, throughout the course of the study, numerous detailed descriptions have emerged of how singing should feel in the body and what occurs physiologically—often without the use of the word support. Williams (2024, p. 135) even writes that many people she knows avoid using the term altogether because it is so frequently misunderstood or used incorrectly. According to her, it often does not help the singer, which aligns with my own experience when working with students who have previously sung in choirs, taken lessons, or simply heard someone say “use your support.” These singers tend to believe that some kind of magical support will help them sing high notes or make their breath last longer, and they become frustrated when this does not happen despite tensing their abdominal muscles as much as possible.

Although I have only discussed five singing teachers’ perspectives on the term support, I perceive, in much of the literature and research presented in this thesis, a broader trend in which both teachers and researchers speak less about support and instead attempt to articulate more precisely what they wish to convey to a student or achieve in their own singing. Tacit knowledge is combined with a deeper understanding of how the singing voice functions, which can help singers refine their technique in a more targeted way. At the same time, demonstrations by a teacher are often indispensable, which aligns with Polanyi’s theory that tacit knowledge is transmitted directly from master to apprentice through imitation (Polanyi 2005, pp. 55–56). This, in my view, requires singing teachers not only to possess a solid understanding of vocal function in order to tailor instruction to different technical issues, but also to have well-trained voices themselves and the ability to demonstrate effectively—not only how correct singing sounds, but also to imitate the student in order to show “this is what you are doing, but try this instead.”

This is particularly important when teaching students who are in the first three stages of learning and who lack sufficient reference points to develop their abilities effectively on their own. It becomes easier for a student to follow verbal instructions once they have progressed beyond the third stage and can relate to the teacher on multiple levels due to increased familiarity with their own instrument. The choice of verbal instructions and vocabulary should therefore be adapted to the student’s prior knowledge and experience and, in many cases, replaced entirely by demonstration.

Another observation that emerged during the study is that a shift has already occurred in how breathing technique is discussed. All five authors clearly describe how the diaphragm contracts during inhalation and relaxes during exhalation. I believe their shared emphasis on this point stems from having encountered various claims about “singing from the diaphragm” in the past. Here, we can see how descriptions of breathing technique have evolved over time, as this phrase is one that many singers have heard repeatedly throughout their training (Williams 2024, pp. 137–138).

Among the five authors, the definition of support that I find most comprehensive and most accurately describes what occurs physiologically in the body is Doscher’s (2023, p. 39). Support is described as an antagonistic relationship between the breathing muscles, in which there is balance between subglottal pressure and the vocal folds in order to achieve a full tone without excess airflow. Is there a single word that could summarize all of this? Quite simply, it could be called balance.

8.5 Possibilities for Further Research

Given the limitations of this thesis, there are several areas that I have not been able to explore in depth but that would be highly relevant in this context. How does uncertainty about what support actually is and how it is used affect singers psychologically, and what consequences might this have for their vocal technique and stage presence? How many of today’s teachings on support can be traced back to the nineteenth century, when the concept first began to be used? It would also be very interesting to investigate how commonly used exercises intended to activate support affect the body physiologically.

Although I have examined only five books written over a thirty-year period, I believe I can discern a pattern suggesting that singing pedagogy is gradually moving away from the use of the term support. It would therefore be valuable to investigate, in a more quantitative manner, how common it is for singing teachers to consciously avoid the term.

Doscher raises an intriguing hypothesis: that the Western sedentary lifestyle, combined with a quiet culture in which it is not socially acceptable to be overly loud, leads to weak abdominal muscles and poorer breathing (Doscher 2023, p. 46). None of the other books I examined mention this idea, nor have I encountered research on the topic, which leads me to wonder whether this is an observation she has made independently or whether it draws on findings from another research field. Regardless, it is a compelling theory. The book was written before the era in which mobile phones and laptops became ubiquitous, and it is well known that excessive use of such devices can lead to so-called “tech neck” as a result of sustained forward head posture. Perhaps the combination of the inactivity Doscher associates with Western lifestyles and the poor posture sometimes caused by modern technology could contribute to less effective use of the breathing muscles in singing. Comparing different cultures to determine whether there is merit to this hypothesis would be a highly interesting avenue for future research.

Literature and Sources

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Appendix 1: Glossary

Appoggio – Italian term meaning “to lean.” Translated as support in Swedish.

Breathing apparatus – The lungs and various muscles used in breathing (Lindblad 1992, p. 13).

Autonomic nervous system – Parts of the nervous system that are not under direct voluntary control (Karolinska Institutet, Autonomic Nervous System).

Bel canto – Literally “beautiful singing” in Italian. An operatic singing style that became popular in the eighteenth century (Jacobs 1975, p. 27).

Cricothyroid (CT) – Also known in Swedish as the ring cartilage–thyroid cartilage muscle. Activating this muscle tilts the thyroid cartilage forward and downward, lengthening the vocal folds and raising pitch. Associated with head voice (Dimon 2018, p. 40).

Diaphragm – A large, dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs that descends during inhalation and ascends during exhalation, altering air pressure in the lungs (Dimon 2018, pp. 10, 12).

Diaphragmatic breathing – Deep breathing in which the diaphragm displaces surrounding organs as it descends, causing the abdomen to protrude when the lungs are full of air (Dimon 2018, p. 12).

Phonation – Sound production using the voice, in singing or speech, created as air passes through the vocal folds (Lindblad 1992, p. 25).

Glottis – The space between the vocal folds, which closes during phonation and can vary in degree of closure (Lindblad 1992, p. 25).

High/low – Descriptive terms referring to pitch, not loudness.

Intercostal breathing – A breathing technique characterized by expansion of the rib cage.

Intercostal muscles – Muscles between the ribs; internal and external groups (Lindblad 1992, p. 25).

Clavicular breathing – Shallow breathing characterized by the shoulders rising during inhalation (Swedish Academy Dictionary, 1936).

Larynx – Also known as the voice box; contains the vocal folds (Dimon 2018, p. 25).

Proprioception – Bodily awareness (Karolinska Institutet, Proprioception).

Rectus abdominis – The anterior abdominal muscles, commonly referred to as the “six-pack” (Dimon 2018, p. 18).

Strong/weak – Descriptive terms referring to loudness.

Vocal folds – Commonly referred to as vocal cords, though folds is a more accurate term, as they open and close rather than functioning as cords (Lindblad 1992, p. 25).

Subglottal pressure – Pressure below the glottis.

Supraglottal pressure – Pressure above the glottis.

Thyroarytenoid (TA) – Muscles running along the vocal folds; their contraction shortens the vocal folds and lowers pitch, also regulating glottal closure. Associated with chest voice (Dimon 2018, p. 41).

Transversus abdominis – The deepest abdominal muscles, running horizontally on both sides of the abdomen (Dimon 2018, p. 15).